Fourteen splash dams were identified on historical maps. Their total historical area was 6.28\u00a0ha (2nd Military Mapping), of\u00a0which only a\u00a0small part has been preserved to this day, with an area of\u00a02.19\u00a0ha (ZBGIS\u00a0\u2013 current mapping). The\u00a0results point to a\u00a0significant decline in\u00a0historical water areas, with some splash dams disappearing as a\u00a0result of\u00a0dam damage, sedimentation, succession, or land use changes, while others have been preserved only in\u00a0the\u00a0form of\u00a0dam relics or have been transformed into new retention reservoirs. The\u00a0article emphasizes the\u00a0importance of\u00a0historical splash dams not only from the\u00a0perspective of\u00a0historical-geographical research, but also in\u00a0the\u00a0context of\u00a0current adaptation measures to climate change in\u00a0mountainous regions.<\/span><\/p>\n Natural lakes cover a\u00a0negligible area in\u00a0Slovakia and cannot be compared with the\u00a0largest lakes in\u00a0neighbouring countries, or in\u00a0Europe and the\u00a0world. Nevertheless, they perform an irreplaceable function within\u00a0the\u00a0ecosystem of\u00a0the\u00a0Western Carpathian landscape, while their economic use is almost zero. For this reason, humans have been constructing water reservoirs in\u00a0Slovakia since the\u00a0Middle Ages. From the\u00a014th century onwards, fishponds were gradually established near monasteries; from the\u00a015th century also in\u00a0sub-castle areas, and subsequently, from the\u00a016th century, the\u00a0construction of\u00a0tajchy<\/span> in\u00a0mining regions reached its greatest development, serving mining, metallurgical and other technical operations. For the\u00a0purpose of\u00a0timber floating from the\u00a0highest mountain\u00a0ranges of\u00a0the\u00a0Western Carpathians, splash dams were constructed from the\u00a016th century onwards. From the\u00a0Early Modern period, particularly in\u00a0the\u00a018th and 19th centuries, water reservoirs were also built as ornamental features in\u00a0the\u00a0gardens and parks of\u00a0ecclesiastical and secular aristocratic residences as well as towns.<\/span><\/p>\n In\u00a0Slovakia, the\u00a0most significant water reservoirs (tajchy<\/span>) in\u00a0the\u00a0past were constructed in\u00a0the\u00a0vicinity of\u00a0Bansk\u00e1 \u0160tiavnica. In\u00a0the\u00a018th century, they ranked among the\u00a0largest, and as many as five tajchy<\/span> from the\u00a0Bansk\u00e1 \u0160tiavnica area were even among the\u00a0ten largest in\u00a0Europe. Ve\u013ek\u00fd Rych\u0148avsk\u00fd ranked 4th, Rozgrund 5th, Ve\u013ek\u00fd Kolpa\u0161sk\u00fd 6th, Po\u010d\u00favadlo 7th, Doln\u00fd Hodru\u0161sk\u00fd 10th, Mal\u00fd Rych\u0148avsk\u00fd 11th, and Ve\u013ek\u00fd Vind\u0161achtsk\u00fd 12th; three others were also within\u00a0the\u00a0top fifty, with Uhorniansky tajch in\u00a0Smoln\u00edk ranking 49th. Until the\u00a0Second World War, the\u00a0tajchy<\/span> of\u00a0Bansk\u00e1 \u0160tiavnica accumulated as much as 98\u00a0% of\u00a0the\u00a0total water volume of\u00a0all artificial water bodies in\u00a0Slovakia\u00a0[1]. On the\u00a0basis of\u00a0the\u00a0uniqueness of\u00a0these water reservoirs (54 of\u00a0which have been preserved) and of\u00a0the\u00a0entire water management system, Bansk\u00e1 \u0160tiavnica and its surroundings were inscribed on the\u00a0UNESCO World Heritage List of\u00a0cultural and technical monuments in\u00a01993. It is therefore logical that, across scientific disciplines, the\u00a0study of\u00a0other historical water reservoirs in\u00a0Slovakia has been largely overlooked. A\u00a0comprehensive interdisciplinary investigation of\u00a0these features has not yet been carried out in\u00a0this country. In\u00a0the\u00a0professional literature, this issue appears only marginally and is treated in\u00a0a\u00a0very general and fragmentary manner.<\/span><\/p>\n Historical water reservoirs (splash dams) represent a\u00a0significant, yet so far largely forgotten, anthropogenic element of\u00a0the\u00a0mountain\u00a0landscape of\u00a0Slovakia. They were constructed in\u00a0the\u00a0headwaters of\u00a0high-mountain\u00a0valleys in\u00a0order to accumulate water for timber floating. These reservoirs enabled the\u00a0efficient use of\u00a0episodic flows and significantly influenced the\u00a0hydrological regime of\u00a0the\u00a0catchments.<\/span><\/p>\n Within\u00a0Slovakia, they occurred primarily in\u00a0the\u00a0mountain\u00a0ranges of\u00a0the\u00a0Western Carpathians, such as Slansk\u00e9 vrchy, Slovensk\u00fd raj, Slovensk\u00e9 rudohorie, Ve\u013ek\u00e1 Fatra, Oravsk\u00e9 Beskydy and Low Tatras. The\u00a0beginnings of\u00a0their construction are documented as early as the\u00a016th century, particularly in\u00a0the\u00a0western part of\u00a0Low Tatras, in\u00a0connection with timber extraction for the\u00a0needs of\u00a0mining and metallurgy, as\u00a0well as for society as a\u00a0whole. Following the\u00a0decline of\u00a0these economic activities and the\u00a0introduction of\u00a0modern timber transport (forest railways) at the\u00a0turn of\u00a0the\u00a019th\u00a0and 20th\u00a0centuries, splash dams lost their original function, which led to their gradual abandonment, infilling by sediments, or overgrowth through natural succession.<\/span><\/p>\n At present, these hydraulic engineering structures have been preserved only in\u00a0the\u00a0form of\u00a0terrain\u00a0relics, most commonly as remains of\u00a0dams or depressions in\u00a0the\u00a0relief. Those that are water-filled have been reconstructed or rebuilt in\u00a0their original profile. In\u00a0Low Tatras, these include the\u00a0Lackov\u00e1 and Malu\u017ein\u00e1 splash dams, and in\u00a0other mountain\u00a0ranges also Hron\u010dok and Biele Vody. In\u00a0recent years, modern fire-protection reservoirs have been constructed in\u00a0the\u00a0original profiles of\u00a0historical splash dams, for example in\u00a0the\u00a0\u013dubochnianska dolina\u00a0\u2013 Doln\u00fd tajch and below Babia hora in\u00a0Bor\u0161ucie.<\/span><\/p>\n The\u00a0aim of\u00a0this paper is to present a\u00a0basic, pilot methodology that would enable the\u00a0identification of\u00a0historical water reservoirs (splash dams) and the\u00a0analysis of\u00a0their spatial extent in\u00a0the\u00a0area of\u00a0Low Tatras on the\u00a0basis of\u00a0the\u00a0interpretation of\u00a0maps of the\u00a02nd\u00a0Military Mapping (1836\u20131852), or other historical maps, to verify the\u00a0data through field research, and to compare them with other historical and contemporary maps.<\/span><\/p>\n For the\u00a0research (identification) of\u00a0historical water reservoirs, textual historical sources are largely absent. For this reason, it is possible to rely only on cartographic sources; however, their availability is also considerably limited, primarily due to the\u00a0small size of\u00a0splash dams and the\u00a0small scale of\u00a0historical maps; therefore, they were usually not represented in\u00a0the\u00a0map content.<\/span><\/p>\n Therefore, maps of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping were used as the\u00a0primary source for detecting their occurrence. These maps are available for viewing on the\u00a0National Geoportal, also as a\u00a0WMTS service (or at https:\/\/maps.arcanum.com\/sk\/). They represent the\u00a0oldest suitable cartographic source, created between 1837 and 1858 at an original scale of\u00a01\u00a0:\u00a028,800. They constitute the\u00a0first relatively accurate set of\u00a0maps depicting the\u00a0landscape prior to extensive anthropogenic interventions (industrialisation). In\u00a0comparison with the\u00a01st\u00a0Military Mapping, the\u00a0accuracy of\u00a0representation increased due to the\u00a0implementation of\u00a0military triangulation. Individual map sheets were georeferenced to a\u00a0spatial resolution of\u00a01\u00a0:\u00a010,000\u00a0[2]. We can say that these maps represent the\u00a0fundamental cartographic source for the\u00a0identification of\u00a0historical water reservoirs and for reconstructing the\u00a0extent of\u00a0their surface area in\u00a0the\u00a0mid-19th century.<\/span><\/p>\n Another cartographic source used was the\u00a03rd Military Mapping from 1875\u20131884 at a\u00a0scale of\u00a01\u00a0:\u00a028,800, from which a\u00a0decimal scale of\u00a01\u00a0:\u00a025,000 was derived. The\u00a0map sheets from this mapping were georeferenced to a\u00a0spatial resolution of\u00a01\u00a0:\u00a010,000\u00a0[3].<\/span><\/p>\n As a\u00a0supplementary source for the\u00a0identification of\u00a0disappeared splash dams, or their relics, a\u00a0historical orthophotomap from the\u00a0mid-20th century was used, providing information on an intermediate stage in\u00a0landscape development. This orthophotomap is freely available on the\u00a0portal of\u00a0the\u00a0Technical University in\u00a0Zvolen\u00a0[4].<\/span><\/p>\n For the\u00a0depiction of\u00a0the\u00a0current state, the\u00a0current Basic Topographic Map of\u00a0the\u00a0Slovak Republic at a\u00a0scale of\u00a01\u00a0:\u00a010,000 (ZTM 10) and the\u00a0current Orthophotomap of\u00a0the\u00a0Slovak Republic from 2024 were used. Both map products are available as a\u00a0WMS service of\u00a0the\u00a0Geoportal of\u00a0the\u00a0Ministry of\u00a0the\u00a0Environment of\u00a0the\u00a0Slovak Republic [5, 6].<\/span><\/p>\n The\u00a0research design, derived from the\u00a0aim of\u00a0the\u00a0study, was, due to its interdisciplinary nature, based on several fundamental methodological approaches. These included a\u00a0combination of\u00a0cartographic and historical-geographical content analysis of\u00a0historical maps, computer-based processing of\u00a0current spatial data, and field verification of\u00a0selected sites. The\u00a0research presented in\u00a0this study provides an initial and model methodological procedure (applied to the\u00a0area of\u00a0Low Tatras) for the\u00a0forthcoming mapping and comprehensive investigation of\u00a0historical water reservoirs (splash dams) in\u00a0the\u00a0Western Carpathians (within\u00a0Slovakia).<\/span><\/p>\n The\u00a0historical-geographical research\u00a0[7] focused on the\u00a0content and spatial evaluation of\u00a0selected historical maps, their georeferencing, the\u00a0identification of\u00a0the\u00a0locations of\u00a0original splash dams, and the\u00a0calculation of\u00a0the\u00a0surface areas of\u00a0water reservoirs in\u00a0the\u00a0mid-19th century. In\u00a0the\u00a0evaluation of\u00a0historical maps, a\u00a0historical-geographical critical spatial, content and comparative analysis was applied [8, 9].<\/span><\/p>\n In\u00a0direct continuity with the\u00a0findings obtained from the\u00a0critical content analysis of\u00a0cartographic sources, field research was carried out at 14 sites, focusing on the\u00a0identification of\u00a0preserved dams and their relics [10\u201312]. The\u00a0fieldwork was conducted during the\u00a0summer months of\u00a02024\u20132025. During the\u00a0field research, it was essential to identify, analyse and map the\u00a0relics of\u00a0splash dams and to obtain\u00a0their morphological and, above all, morphometric characteristics.<\/span><\/p>\n Detailed field research was carried out using modern cartographic and computer-based equipment. Spatial data were collected through geodetic measurements using a\u00a0GNSS device (Stonex S900) operating in\u00a0DGPS mode. In\u00a0this mode, when receiving differential corrections, the\u00a0approximate horizontal positional accuracy was ~ 0.25\u00a0m RMS and the\u00a0vertical (elevation) accuracy was ~0.45\u00a0m RMS. During the\u00a0fieldwork, procedures followed methodological steps used for the\u00a0location, morphological and morphometric mapping of\u00a0landscape features related to historical anthropogenic lakes and their dams, based on the\u00a0work of\u00a0V. Pilous [13\u201315].<\/span><\/p>\n In\u00a0the\u00a0computer-based data processing, we followed methodological procedures applied in\u00a0similar studies on disappeared historical water reservoirs by\u00a0J.\u00a0\u010ces\u00e1k and M. \u0160obr\u00a0[16], as well as by K. Weis [17, 18].<\/p>\n The\u00a0map sheets of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping were georeferenced in\u00a0the\u00a0ArcMap\u00a010.8 environment to the\u00a0S-JTSK (Krovak East North) coordinate system. Distinct and stable morphological and settlement features (stream confluences, roads, ridges and valleys) were used as reference points. After georeferencing, the\u00a0sheets were mosaicked and linked to the\u00a0current ZBGIS layer. Based on the\u00a0interpretation of\u00a0the\u00a0maps of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping, splash dam locations were manually digitised as point features into a\u00a0new point shapefile layer; at the\u00a0same time, polygon shapefile layers were also generated. Each object was assigned an identifier, name, catchment, historical period and preservation status (preserved, partially preserved\u00a0\u2013 relics, or disappeared). For unclear locations, supplementary visual data from the\u00a0historical orthophoto map of\u00a0the\u00a0Slovak Republic (1950\u20131960) and field observations were used. The\u00a0surface areas of\u00a0individual splash dams were calculated directly within\u00a0the\u00a0GIS environment using the\u00a0Calculate Geometry (Area) function. The\u00a0resulting values were exported to Microsoft Excel 2019 for the\u00a0creation of\u00a0summary tables.<\/p>\n The\u00a0areas of\u00a0present-day water reservoirs were obtained from the\u00a0ZBGIS layer and compared with the\u00a0records of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping through a\u00a0spatial analysis using the\u00a0Overlay (Intersect) method. For each site, both graphical and numerical comparisons of\u00a0the\u00a0extent of\u00a0historical and current surface areas were carried out. In\u00a0cases where a\u00a0reservoir had disappeared, the\u00a0reason (negative driving force) was determined. The\u00a0results were visualised using layers (preserved, partially preserved\u00a0\u2013 relics, and disappeared).<\/p>\n Georeferencing of\u00a0archival maps and the\u00a0integration of\u00a0current WMS or WMTS layers were carried out in\u00a0the\u00a0ArcGIS environment, specifically using ArcMap\u00a010.\u00a08. The\u00a0identified splash dams were vectorised, making it possible to determine the\u00a0degree of\u00a0their preservation or disappearance. This was followed by the\u00a0creation of\u00a0polygon layers in.shp format. Each polygon was precisely defined by its identification number, period and surface area. The\u00a0resulting values were exported to Microsoft Excel and subsequently visualised in\u00a0tables and compared with current spatial data (orthophotomaps and ZBGIS).<\/p>\n The\u00a0layer of\u00a0catchments and sub-catchments was derived from a\u00a0digital elevation model (DEM) with a\u00a0resolution of\u00a01 \u00d7 1\u00a0m using hydrological tools in\u00a0the\u00a0ArcMap\u00a010.8\u00a0(ESRI) environment. The\u00a0DEM was pre-processed using the\u00a0Fill tool in\u00a0order to\u00a0eliminate local depressions and ensure the\u00a0continuity of\u00a0surface runoff. Subsequently, flow direction and flow accumulation were calculated, forming the\u00a0basis for the\u00a0identification of\u00a0confluence points (catchment closing profiles; Pour points). Based on the\u00a0defined confluence points (catchment closing profiles; Pour points), the\u00a0boundaries of\u00a0sub-catchments were derived using the\u00a0Watershed tool. The\u00a0resulting raster catchments were converted into polygon format and topologically verified. The\u00a0areas of\u00a0individual sub-catchments were calculated in\u00a0the\u00a0attribute table using the\u00a0Calculate Geometry (Area) function and expressed in\u00a0hectares. All spatial data were processed in\u00a0the\u00a0S-JTSK (EPSG:5514) coordinate reference system. The\u00a0resulting layer of\u00a0sub-catchments constituted the\u00a0fundamental analytical dataset for assessing spatial relationships between historical water reservoirs and their hinterlands.<\/p>\n The\u00a0entire methodological procedure, the\u00a0sequence of\u00a0individual research steps and the\u00a0methods used are shown in\u00a0Fig.\u00a01<\/em>.<\/p>\n The\u00a0splash dams investigated in\u00a0this study are located within\u00a0the\u00a0geomorphological unit of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras, which represents an important mountain\u00a0range in\u00a0the\u00a0central part of\u00a0the\u00a0Western Carpathians. The\u00a0Low Tatras are the\u00a0second highest massif of\u00a0the\u00a0Carpathian arc, with the\u00a0main\u00a0ridge predominantly oriented in\u00a0a\u00a0west\u2013east direction. The\u00a0highest point of\u00a0the\u00a0range is Mt \u010eumbier (2,043\u00a0m\u00a0a.s.l.). Most of\u00a0the\u00a0investigated splash dams fall within\u00a0the\u00a0catchment of\u00a0the\u00a0V\u00e1h river, while a\u00a0smaller proportion lies within\u00a0the\u00a0Hron catchment\u00a0[19]. The\u00a0analysed features are located at\u00a0elevations of\u00a0approximately 800\u20131,250\u00a0m a.s.l.\u00a0[20], predominantly in\u00a0the\u00a0upper parts of\u00a0valleys, where they originated as storage reservoirs capturing the\u00a0waters of\u00a0mountain\u00a0streams. Based on the\u00a0interpretation of\u00a0maps of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping, a\u00a0total of\u00a0fourteen historical splash dams were identified in\u00a0the\u00a0area of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras, forming part of\u00a0a\u00a0water management system designed for timber floating (Fig.\u00a02<\/span>, Tab.\u00a01<\/span>). From the\u00a0perspective of\u00a0administrative division, the\u00a0studied mountain\u00a0range is located within\u00a0the\u00a0districts of\u00a0Ru\u017eomberok, Bansk\u00e1 Bystrica, Liptovsk\u00fd Mikul\u00e1\u0161, Brezno and Poprad. The\u00a0area of\u00a0the\u00a0geomorphological unit of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras was divided into two parts: northern and southern, with the\u00a0boundary formed by the\u00a0main\u00a0ridge of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras, which also represents the\u00a0watershed divide between the\u00a0Hron and V\u00e1h catchments.<\/span><\/p>\n <\/p>\n The\u00a0main\u00a0ridge of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras is formed by a\u00a0crystalline core composed predominantly of\u00a0intrusive igneous rocks, especially granodiorites. The\u00a0entire area belongs to the\u00a0Central Western Carpathians, where Palaeozoic and Mesozoic complexes of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras dominate. From the\u00a0perspective of\u00a0tectonic division, the\u00a0mountain\u00a0range is situated within\u00a0two tectonic units: the\u00a0Tatra\u2013Fatra unit and the\u00a0Vepor unit. The\u00a0studied area belongs to the\u00a0zone of\u00a0core mountains of\u00a0the\u00a0eastern group with a\u00a0Tatric crystalline basement. The\u00a0crystalline complex of\u00a0the\u00a0Tatricum consists of\u00a0acidic plutonic rocks (granitoids) and medium- to high-grade metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary complexes (gneisses, paragneisses, amphibolites and migmatites). Above this crystalline core lie original (autochthonous) sedimentary formations composed of\u00a0a\u00a0diverse group of\u00a0rocks such as shales, quartzites, limestones and dolomites\u00a0[21]. From a\u00a0geomorphological perspective, the\u00a0Low Tatras unit belongs to the\u00a0Fatra\u2013Tatra area of\u00a0the\u00a0Inner Western Carpathians.<\/span><\/p>\n The\u00a0splash dams are located in\u00a0the\u00a0geomorphological sub-units \u010eumbierske Tatry and Kr\u00e1\u013eovoho\u013esk\u00e9 Tatry, more precisely in\u00a0the\u00a0areas of\u00a0Pra\u0161iv\u00e1, Salat\u00edny, Priehyba and \u010eumbier. The\u00a0area is characterised by the\u00a0relief of\u00a0pedimented uplands and hilly landscapes, with a\u00a0predominance of\u00a0highland foothill relief. In\u00a0terms of\u00a0morphological-morphometric relief types, high mountains, moderately high mountains and hilly terrains prevail. The\u00a0soil cover reflects both geological conditions and elevation. In\u00a0both the\u00a0northern and southern parts, rendzinas on carbonate substrates and podzolic cambisols on gneisses and granitoids with loamy-sandy to loamy textures dominate\u00a0[20]. At the\u00a0highest elevations and on slopes with higher moisture, modal and humic-iron podzols occur\u00a0[22]. These geological and geomorphological conditions significantly influenced the\u00a0location of\u00a0splash dams, which were situated primarily in\u00a0narrow valleys with suitable morphological conditions for dam construction.<\/span><\/p>\n The\u00a0hydrological conditions of\u00a0the\u00a0area are determined by the\u00a0mountainous character of\u00a0the\u00a0relief, with a\u00a0predominance of\u00a0short watercourses exhibiting pronounced seasonal discharge dynamics. Splash dams were constructed on smaller streams, where they enabled the\u00a0regulation of\u00a0flows and their short-term increase during periods of\u00a0timber floating. The\u00a0Low Tatras belong to two main\u00a0second-order catchments; the\u00a0Hron and the\u00a0V\u00e1h. Within\u00a0the\u00a0Hron catchment, splash dams occur in\u00a0the\u00a0valleys of\u00a0Vajskov\u00e1 (P\u00e1lenica), Sopotnica, and Bac\u00fach, while those belonging to the\u00a0V\u00e1h catchment are located in\u00a0the\u00a0northern valleys of\u00a0Korytnica, \u013dup\u010dianka, Malu\u017ein\u00e1, Svarinka, Ipoltica, Medvedia, Dikula, Benkovo, and \u017ddiar. Splash dams in\u00a0the\u00a0V\u00e1h catchment belong to the\u00a0sub-catchments of\u00a0Rev\u00faca, Boca and Ipoltica, which are left-bank tributaries of\u00a0the\u00a0\u010cierny V\u00e1h. Splash dams in\u00a0the\u00a0Hron catchment are situated on its right-bank tributaries. From a\u00a0hydrological perspective, the\u00a0area represents a\u00a0mid-mountain\u00a0region with a\u00a0snow\u2013rain\u00a0runoff regime characterised by pronounced seasonal variability (Tab.\u00a02<\/span><\/em>) [19, 23].<\/span><\/p>\n <\/p>\n The average specific runoff ranges between 20\u201330 l \u2219 s-1 \u2219 km-2, with higher values typical of the northern part of the mountain range, where precipitation totals and snow accumulation are greater. Watercourses are short, steep and\u00a0of\u00a0a\u00a0mountain\u00a0character. The\u00a0analysed splash dams are identified and located at river kilometres within\u00a0the\u00a0range of\u00a01.8\u201317.6 km (with an average of\u00a08.28\u00a0river\u00a0km) (Tab.\u00a03<\/span>). At present, the\u00a0hydrological regime of\u00a0most of\u00a0these watercourses remains natural, with only a\u00a0small proportion of\u00a0splash dams retaining their storage function\u00a0[22].<\/span><\/p>\n <\/p>\n The\u00a0Low Tatras are situated in\u00a0a\u00a0cold mountain\u00a0and moderately cold very humid climatic region. The\u00a0mean annual air temperature ranges from \u22121 to 7 \u00b0C. The\u00a0average annual precipitation reaches up to 1,500\u00a0mm at the\u00a0highest elevations and around 800\u00a0mm at lower elevations. The\u00a0average number of\u00a0days with snow cover ranges from 60 to 100 days\u00a0[24].<\/span><\/p>\n Several sites (13) are located within\u00a0Low Tatras National Park or in\u00a0its buffer zone (1) [25, 26]. This creates specific conditions for their potential restoration, where environmental and landscape-hydrological significance takes precedence over economic use. Today, these water bodies can function as habitat islands with high diversity of\u00a0wetland vegetation, amphibians and insects, thereby representing valuable microclimatic and retention features in\u00a0the\u00a0mountain\u00a0environment.<\/span><\/p>\n Georeferencing of\u00a0maps and the\u00a0determination of\u00a0the\u00a0\u201cprecise\u201d location of\u00a0splash dam embankments in\u00a0maps also enables accurate location of\u00a0their relics in\u00a0the\u00a0field. Through the\u00a0analysis of\u00a0map sheets of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping, 13 historical water reservoirs were identified in\u00a0the\u00a0studied area of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras (a\u00a014th splash dam, Kremeniny, was verified on the\u00a0basis of\u00a0written sources), situated predominantly in\u00a0the\u00a0upper parts of\u00a0mountain\u00a0valleys on smaller watercourses. Their spatial distribution shows a\u00a0clear association with areas of\u00a0intensive historical timber extraction and favourable geomorphological conditions for damming watercourses (Figs. 3, 4<\/em>).<\/p>\n <\/p>\n The results of the processing of historical cartographic sources indicate that splash dams generally had a small to medium surface extent, with their size adapted to the short-term accumulation of water required for timber floating. Data on reservoir surface areas are, in many cases (given the absence of archival documents) the only available information, and can be verified only against data obtained from 3D modelling of disappeared splash dams. Input data for\u00a0<\/span>reconstructive 3D models can be obtained solely on the\u00a0basis of\u00a0field-based geodetic morphometric measurements (Tabs. 3<\/span>, 4<\/span><\/em>).<\/span><\/p>\n Most of\u00a0the\u00a0identified splash dam sites were depicted as individual water bodies with clearly distinguishable embankments. Thirteen splash dams were located in\u00a0the\u00a0upper reaches of\u00a0individual valleys, as the\u00a0accumulated water was used for timber floating from mountain\u00a0areas to processing sites. In\u00a0the\u00a0\u010cierny V\u00e1h area, splash dams were also used to raise the\u00a0water level of\u00a0the\u00a0river itself, along which semi-rafts were floated. Only the\u00a0Bac\u00fach splash dam was situated on the\u00a0lower course, as it served exclusively to increase the\u00a0water level of\u00a0the\u00a0Hron, enabling the\u00a0floating of\u00a0rafts even during dry summer months.<\/span><\/p>\n The\u00a0comparison of\u00a0historical maps with current data from ZBGIS and the\u00a0Orthophotomap of\u00a0the\u00a0Slovak Republic, together with their subsequent comprehensive comparison and verification using field research results, indicates significant changes in\u00a0the\u00a0morphological and morphometric extent of\u00a0historical splash dams and their relics. In\u00a0the\u00a0first step, the\u00a0main\u00a0negative driving force responsible for their gradual disappearance was preliminarily identified. Where they were secondarily used as fishponds or for recreation, they have been preserved to the\u00a0present day as water-filled relics. Where they were abandoned for economic reasons, they have gradually, under the\u00a0influence of\u00a0natural processes\u00a0\u2013 particularly floods, weathering, water erosion, succession and sediment infilling\u00a0\u2013 been preserved only in\u00a0the\u00a0form of\u00a0larger or smaller relics, or have disappeared completely. Only in\u00a0one case (the\u00a0Korytnica splash dam) was destruction recorded as a\u00a0result of\u00a0anthropogenic driving forces (road construction).<\/p>\n According to their state of\u00a0preservation, the\u00a0individual splash dams were categorised (Tab.\u00a04<\/em>) as preserved (Malu\u017ein\u00e1, Lackov\u00e1), partially preserved\u00a0\u2013 relics (Korytnica, Magurka, Svar\u00edn I, Svar\u00edn II, Ho\u0161kov\u00e1, Medvedia, Dikula, \u017ddiar, Sopotnica, P\u00e1lenica, Bac\u00fach), and disappeared (Kremeniny). The\u00a0individual dams, or their relics, can also be classified according to construction technique into concrete\u2013stone (Bac\u00fach, Magurka), stone (Korytnica), stone\u2013earth (P\u00e1lenica, Sopotnica, Medvedia, Dikula), embankment\u2013earth, or rather stone\u2013earth (Malu\u017ein\u00e1, Lackov\u00e1, Ho\u0161kov\u00e1, \u017ddiar), and wooden (probably Svar\u00edn\u00a0I, Svar\u00edn II and Kremeniny).<\/p>\n Out of\u00a0the\u00a0total of\u00a014 identified historical water reservoirs, 8\u00a0sites (57.1\u00a0%) have disappeared and are preserved only in\u00a0the\u00a0form of\u00a0relief relics, while a\u00a0further 4\u00a0splash dams (28.6\u00a0%) have been preserved only as dam structures; only 2\u00a0splash dams (14.3\u00a0%) have been preserved as water bodies in\u00a0a\u00a0transformed form. Overall, 85.7\u00a0% of\u00a0historical water reservoirs have lost their original storage function.<\/p>\n The\u00a0comparison of\u00a0the\u00a0spatial extent of\u00a0historical and present-day water reservoirs indicates a\u00a0significant reduction in\u00a0the\u00a0storage capacity of\u00a0splash dams. The\u00a0current surface area represents only 34.9\u00a0% of\u00a0the\u00a0historical area recorded on maps of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping and 19.2\u00a0% of\u00a0the\u00a0area recorded on maps of\u00a0the\u00a03rd Military Mapping, documenting a\u00a0pronounced decline of\u00a0these features in\u00a0the\u00a0landscape. The\u00a0comparison of\u00a0the\u00a0historical and current state of\u00a0selected splash dams illustrates different forms of\u00a0their preservation within\u00a0the\u00a0landscape.<\/p>\n Based on the comparison of the historical and present-day state, it can be stated that in the Low Tatras, lakes have been preserved at only two splash\u00a0<\/span>dam sites. These are the\u00a0Malu\u017ein\u00e1 and Lackov\u00e1 splash dams; however, both have significantly modified embankments and no longer serve their original purpose. They represent important ecological sites within\u00a0Low Tatras National Park. The\u00a0majority of\u00a0splash dams (10) have been preserved to the\u00a0present day in\u00a0the\u00a0form of\u00a0complete or partial dam relics. Wetlands are often found in\u00a0the\u00a0area of\u00a0the\u00a0former reservoir basins. The\u00a0only splash dam that could not be identified in\u00a0the\u00a0field was Kremeniny (or its relic) (see Tab.\u00a01<\/span><\/em> for details).<\/span><\/p>\n Field verification of\u00a0selected sites confirmed that the\u00a0degree of\u00a0preservation of\u00a0historical splash dams varies considerably depending on their current use and the\u00a0level of\u00a0anthropogenic or natural disturbance.<\/span><\/p>\n With regard to the\u00a0aim and scope of\u00a0the\u00a0study, a\u00a0basic characterisation of\u00a0two identified splash dams is presented. As representative examples, a\u00a0partially preserved, still water-filled splash dam at Malu\u017ein\u00e1 and the\u00a0relic of\u00a0a\u00a0preserved dam at Magurka were selected, where a\u00a0wetland is located within\u00a0the\u00a0former reservoir area.<\/span><\/p>\n The\u00a0embankment of\u00a0the\u00a0Malu\u017ein\u00e1 splash dam<\/span> (Figs. 5\u20139<\/span><\/em>) is located at\u00a0river kilometre 8.06 of\u00a0the\u00a0Malu\u017einsk\u00fd stream, in\u00a0the\u00a0headwaters of\u00a0the\u00a0valley of\u00a0the\u00a0same name on the\u00a0northern slopes of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras (cadastral area of\u00a0Malu\u017ein\u00e1, Liptovsk\u00fd Mikul\u00e1\u0161 District). The\u00a0Malu\u017einsk\u00fd stream, which rises on the\u00a0south-eastern slopes of\u00a0Vrbovica (1,393.8\u00a0m a.s.l.) at an elevation of\u00a0approximately 1,195\u00a0m a.s.l., is a\u00a0fourth-order stream that flows into the\u00a0Boca stream from the\u00a0right at Malu\u017ein\u00e1 at an elevation of\u00a0approximately 738\u00a0m\u00a0a.s.l. (the\u00a0Boca stream flows from the\u00a0left into the\u00a0V\u00e1h river, which is a\u00a0left-bank tributary of\u00a0the\u00a0Danube). The\u00a0Malu\u017einsk\u00fd stream has a\u00a0snow\u2013rain\u00a0runoff regime and drains a\u00a0catchment area of\u00a04,465.9\u00a0ha.<\/span><\/p>\n During fieldwork, the precise mathematical position of the geometric centre of the dam crest was determined at 48\u00ba 93\u2032 N latitude and 19\u00ba 84\u2032 E longitude.\u00a0The\u00a0elevation of\u00a0the\u00a0dam crest at the\u00a0Pod Vrbicou site, located at the\u00a0confluence of\u00a0the\u00a0Straten\u00e1 stream (from the\u00a0right) with the\u00a0Malu\u017einsk\u00fd stream, is 964\u00a0m\u00a0a.s.l. The\u00a0catchment area of\u00a0the\u00a0outlet profile of\u00a0the\u00a0splash dam, from which water was accumulated in\u00a0the\u00a0reservoir, is 585.12\u00a0ha, representing 13\u00a0% of\u00a0the\u00a0total catchment area of\u00a0the\u00a0Malu\u017einsk\u00fd stream.<\/span><\/p>\n Based on additional field measurements and 3D modelling, the\u00a0basic parameters of\u00a0the\u00a0relic of\u00a0the\u00a0original splash dam embankment are as follows. The\u00a0width of\u00a0the\u00a0dam base is approximately 30\u00a0m, the\u00a0maximum height reaches 8\u00a0m, and the\u00a0crest length is 67.45\u00a0m. The\u00a0volume of\u00a0the\u00a0reservoir could not be calculated due to its inundated state; its current surface area was estimated at approximately 0.25\u00a0ha, whereas according to the\u00a0map of\u00a0the\u00a03rd Military Mapping, its area in\u00a0the\u00a01880s was 1.93\u00a0ha. The\u00a0present surface area is determined by a\u00a0temporary, rehabilitated spillway, as the\u00a0original one is in\u00a0a\u00a0critical condition and non-functional. The\u00a0original outlet adit, constructed in\u00a0the\u00a0centre of\u00a0the\u00a0earthfill dam from precisely worked travertine blocks and vaulted with a\u00a0barrel vault, was approximately 22.5\u00a0m long (measurable part), 2.6\u00a0m wide and 2.5\u00a0m high.<\/span><\/p>\n At present, the\u00a0surroundings of\u00a0the\u00a0splash dam are covered by spruce monoculture forests, although a\u00a0large part has been subject to clear-cutting. On\u00a0the\u00a0left side of\u00a0the\u00a0splash dam, in\u00a0a\u00a0deforested area, there is a\u00a0maintained hunting lodge, which is regularly rented out by Forests of\u00a0the\u00a0Slovak Republic to individual visitors for short-term stays for hunting, hiking, cycling or active recreation in\u00a0the\u00a0mountains. The\u00a0site is accessible via an asphalt road (passable only with permission from the\u00a0national park or state forests) leading through the\u00a0Malu\u017einsk\u00e1 dolina from the\u00a0village of\u00a0Malu\u017ein\u00e1, which is approximately 8\u00a0km away. Two cycling routes run along this road. The\u00a0first ends at the\u00a0Pod Vrbicou site near the\u00a0splash dam, while the\u00a0second crosses the\u00a0dam crest and continues further as a\u00a0loop along forest roads back to Malu\u017ein\u00e1.<\/span><\/p>\n Given the\u00a0absence of\u00a0textual archival sources, historical maps (Fig.\u00a05<\/span><\/em>) represent the\u00a0primary relevant source for reconstructing the\u00a0history of\u00a0the\u00a0Malu\u017ein\u00e1 splash dam. The\u00a0earliest record, noted with a\u00a0delay of\u00a0more than 130 years in\u00a0the\u00a0chronicle of\u00a0the\u00a0village of\u00a0Malu\u017ein\u00e1, states that the\u00a0splash dam was constructed in\u00a01801. It was a\u00a0wooden log dam built of\u00a0spruce timber, as also documented by sources held in\u00a0the\u00a0Forestry and Timber Museum in\u00a0Zvolen. An\u00a0already existing splash dam is depicted on a\u00a0map stored in\u00a0the\u00a0Hungarian National Archives in\u00a0Budapest (S\u00a011\u00a0\u2013 No. 636) from 1804, where a\u00a0blue-coloured reservoir with a\u00a0dam is shown without a\u00a0name. The\u00a0map of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping from 1839 depicts the\u00a0splash dam reservoir in\u00a0blue and labels the\u00a0site as Na Teichu<\/span>. On the\u00a0map of\u00a0the\u00a03rd Military Mapping from 1876, the\u00a0site is labelled as Klause<\/span> and depicts a dam with a reservoir. It is highly probable that\u00a0<\/span>the\u00a0original wooden dam was rebuilt and maintained several times until 1923, when it was reconstructed into an earthfill stone\u2013earth dam, the\u00a0relic of\u00a0which is present in\u00a0the\u00a0landscape today. The\u00a0maximum volume of\u00a0the\u00a0reservoir of\u00a0the\u00a0new splash dam, prior to sediment infilling, was 45,000\u00a0m\u00b3. The\u00a0dam was constructed from material extracted in\u00a0a\u00a0quarry approximately 50\u00a0m in\u00a0extent, opened directly near the\u00a0dam crest on its right side. It ceased to serve its original purpose in\u00a01930, when a\u00a0forest railway was put into operation in\u00a0the\u00a0Malu\u017einsk\u00fd stream valley.<\/span><\/p>\n The\u00a0embankment of\u00a0the\u00a0Magurka splash dam<\/span> (Figs. 10\u201314<\/span><\/em>) is located at\u00a0river kilometre 17.56 of\u00a0the\u00a0\u013dup\u010dianka stream, in\u00a0the\u00a0upper third of\u00a0the\u00a0valley of\u00a0the\u00a0same name (cadastral area of\u00a0Partiz\u00e1nska \u013dup\u010da, Liptovsk\u00fd Mikul\u00e1\u0161 District), approximately 500\u00a0m south of\u00a0the\u00a0confluence of\u00a0the\u00a0Tlst\u00fd stream and Ve\u013ek\u00e1 Oru\u017en\u00e1 with the\u00a0\u013dup\u010dianka. It is situated about 500\u00a0m from the\u00a0turn-off to the\u00a0former mining settlement of\u00a0Magurka, on the\u00a0left-hand side of\u00a0the\u00a0road. The\u00a0dam profile is positioned in\u00a0a\u00a0narrowed section of\u00a0the\u00a0valley between the\u00a0ridges of\u00a0Tajch on the\u00a0right (eastern) side and Hlinisko on the\u00a0left (western) side of\u00a0the\u00a0valley. The\u00a0entire area is covered by spruce monoculture forests. The\u00a0\u013dup\u010dianka is a\u00a0third-order stream that rises in\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras (\u010eumbierske Tatry), in\u00a0the\u00a0\u010eurkov\u00e1 massif (1,749.8\u00a0m\u00a0a.s.l.), on the\u00a0northern slopes below the\u00a0\u010eurkov\u00e1 saddle at an elevation of\u00a0approximately 1,605\u00a0m\u00a0a.s.l. Originally, after 24 km it flowed into the\u00a0V\u00e1h from the\u00a0left near Be\u0161e\u0148ov\u00e1 (at present into the\u00a0Be\u0161e\u0148ov\u00e1 reservoir) at an elevation of\u00a0approximately 512\u00a0m a.s.l. The\u00a0\u013dup\u010dianka has a\u00a0snow\u2013rain\u00a0runoff regime and drains a\u00a0catchment area of\u00a07,942.16\u00a0ha.<\/span><\/p>\n <\/p>\n During field measurements, the precise mathematical position of the geometric centre of the dam crest of the Magurka splash dam was\u00a0determined at 48\u00ba 97\u2032 N latitude and 19\u00ba 42\u2032 E longitude. The\u00a0elevation of\u00a0the\u00a0crest is 817.5\u00a0m a.s.l. The\u00a0catchment area of\u00a0the\u00a0outlet profile of\u00a0the\u00a0splash dam, from which water was accumulated in\u00a0the\u00a0reservoir, is 1,452.58\u00a0ha, representing 18\u00a0% of\u00a0the\u00a0total catchment area of\u00a0the\u00a0\u013dup\u010dianka stream.<\/p>\n Based on field measurements and 3D modelling, the\u00a0basic parameters of\u00a0the\u00a0relic of\u00a0the\u00a0dam and the\u00a0original splash dam are as follows. The\u00a0width of\u00a0the\u00a0dam base is 11.27\u00a0m, the\u00a0height 9.9\u00a0m, and the\u00a0length 54.3562\u00a0m. The\u00a0volume of\u00a0the\u00a0reservoir was 38,833.3\u00a0m\u00b3 and its surface area 10,743\u00a0m\u00b2. According to the\u00a0map of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping from the\u00a0mid-19th century, its area was 0.72\u00a0ha, and according to the\u00a0map of\u00a0the\u00a03rd Military Mapping from the\u00a01880s, 1.87\u00a0ha. The\u00a0dam wall is constructed of\u00a0quarry stone, with the\u00a0crest reinforced by a\u00a0concrete slab. In\u00a0its lower central part, the\u00a0dam contains two outlet openings vaulted with segmental arches, while in\u00a0the\u00a0central upper part there is a\u00a0spillway. To prevent back erosion below the\u00a0outlet openings, the\u00a0stream bed is lined with wooden beams and its banks are reinforced with retaining walls over a\u00a0length of\u00a0approximately 30\u00a0m. In\u00a0the\u00a0centre of\u00a0the\u00a0dam, there was a\u00a0wooden shelter housing the\u00a0technical equipment used for opening the\u00a0outlet gates.<\/p>\n Just like in\u00a0the\u00a0previous splash dam, the\u00a0main\u00a0historical sources for the\u00a0study of\u00a0the\u00a0Magurka splash dam are historical maps. Written sources document the\u00a0construction of\u00a0a\u00a0wooden\u2013earth dam as late as 1819, intended for the\u00a0annual floating of\u00a0timber to Partiz\u00e1nska \u013dup\u010da. Relics have been preserved approximately 5\u00a0m below the\u00a0existing stone dam on both sides of\u00a0the\u00a0wooden chute. The\u00a0original log structure had a\u00a0base thickness of\u00a0approximately 20\u00a0m, a\u00a0length of\u00a0about 45\u00a0m, and its height can be estimated at around 8\u00a0m. This reservoir is first depicted on the\u00a0analysed maps of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping from 1845, where it is shown as a\u00a0blue-coloured lake and labelled Klause<\/em>. On the\u00a0map of\u00a0the\u00a03rd Military Mapping from 1876, the\u00a0site is depicted and labelled Klause<\/em>, and the\u00a0site in\u00a0which it is situated is named Na Teichu<\/em>. The\u00a0splash dam was maintained and probably served its purpose until the\u00a0beginning of\u00a0the\u00a020th century, as\u00a0in\u00a01911 the\u00a0Forest Cooperative in\u00a0Nemeck\u00e1 (now Partiz\u00e1nska) \u013dup\u010da constructed the\u00a0present dam. By 1938, historical maps already depict the\u00a0site without a\u00a0reservoir and refer to it using Tajch Slovak nomenclature. That the\u00a0splash dam was most likely no longer in\u00a0operation at the\u00a0turn of\u00a0the\u00a01930s\u00a0and 1940s is also evidenced by a\u00a0record in\u00a0the\u00a0municipal chronicle of\u00a0Partiz\u00e1nska \u013dup\u010da, which states that timber from the\u00a0Teich was already being transported by horse-drawn wagons. On maps produced after 1955, only the\u00a0dam is shown, without a\u00a0reservoir.<\/p>\n Based on the\u00a0content analysis of\u00a0historical maps, with particular emphasis on\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping from the\u00a0second half of\u00a0the\u00a019th century, and on archival sources, a\u00a0total of\u00a014 splash dams were identified in\u00a0the\u00a0area of\u00a0the\u00a0Low Tatras, in\u00a0most cases preserved only as dam relics. However, it is highly probable that in\u00a0the\u00a0past (since the\u00a016th century), additional small water reservoirs were constructed in\u00a0the\u00a0headwaters of\u00a0Low Tatras streams, which had already disappeared by the\u00a0mid-19th century. This assumption is suggested by limited textual archival sources; however, these wooden, partly earth-built dams are now in\u00a0such an advanced stage of\u00a0naturalisation that their location in\u00a0the\u00a0field will most likely be impossible. The\u00a0confirmation or refutation of\u00a0these hypotheses will require more detailed historical-geographical research (partly making use of\u00a0the\u00a0methodology presented here).<\/span><\/p>\nINTRODUCTION<\/h2>\n
MATERIAL AND SOURCES<\/h2>\n
METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURE FOR DATA PROCESSING<\/h2>\n
Historical-geographical research<\/h3>\n
Field research<\/h3>\n
Computer-based data processing<\/h3>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.vtei.cz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/04\/Cimbala-obr-1.jpg\")
<\/a>\nFig. 1. Research workflow and data processing<\/h6>\n
BASIC GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF the\u00a0STUDY AREA<\/h2>\n
<\/a>\nFig. 2. Study area within the Low Tatras geomorphological unit, showing the location of identified splash dams on maps of the 2nd Military Mapping and verified in the field, with respect to sub-catchments<\/h6>\n
Tab.\u00a01. Identified historical water reservoirs (splash dams) in\u00a0the\u00a0study area<\/h5>\n
<\/a>\nBrief geological, geomorphological and soil characteristics<\/h3>\n
Basic hydrological and climatic characteristics<\/h3>\n
Tab. 2. Hydrological characteristics of the study area<\/h5>\n
<\/a>\nTab. 3. Area of the micro-catchment and the closing profile above the splash dams<\/h5>\n
<\/a>\nProtected areas and ecological context<\/h3>\n
RESULTS<\/h2>\n
Identification of\u00a0historical splash dams based on maps of\u00a0the\u00a02nd Military Mapping<\/h3>\n
<\/a>\nFig. 3. Example of historical splash dams shown on the map of the 2nd Military Mapping in the Low Tatras region (northern part) (1 : 10,000)<\/h6>\n
<\/a>\nFig. 4. Example of historical splash dams shown on the map of the 2nd Military Mapping in the Low Tatras region (southern part) (1 : 10,000)<\/h6>\n
Comparison of\u00a0the\u00a0historical and current state of\u00a0splash dams<\/h3>\n
Characteristics of\u00a0selected identified splash dam relics<\/h3>\n
<\/a>\nFig. 5. Preserved water surface of the historical Malu\u017ein\u00e1 splash dam in the northern Low Tatras (1 : 10,000)<\/h6>\n
<\/a><\/h6>\nFig. 6. Computer model of Malu\u017ein\u00e1 splash dam based on field measurements<\/h6>\n
<\/a>\nFig. 7. Malu\u017ein\u00e1 splash dam (right) and reservoir (view from the east), November 2025<\/h6>\n
<\/a><\/h6>\nFig. 8. Malu\u017ein\u00e1 splash dam (left) and reservoir (view from the west), November 2025<\/h6>\n
<\/a><\/h6>\nFig. 9. Portal of a disused outlet gallery preserved in the embankment of Malu\u017ein\u00e1 splash dam, November 2025<\/h6>\n
<\/a>\nFig. 10. Indications of the historical Magurka splash dam, still identifiable despite the disappearance of the reservoir (1 : 5,000)<\/h6>\n
<\/a>\nFig. 11. Computer model of Magurka splash dam based on field measurements<\/h6>\n
<\/a><\/h6>\nFig. 12. Downstream slope of\u00a0Magurka splash dam,\u00a0November 2025<\/h6>\n
<\/a><\/h6>\nFig. 13. Upstream slope of\u00a0Magurka splash dam,\u00a0November 2025<\/h6>\n
<\/a><\/h6>\nFig. 14. Relics of outlet galleries of Magurka splash dam, November 2025<\/h6>\n
DISCUSSION<\/h2>\n