![\"\"](\"https:\/\/www.vtei.cz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/02\/Korinek-fig-1.jpg\")
<\/a>\n<\/p>\n
Fig.\u00a01. Food waste production in\u00a0the\u00a0European\u00a0Union at each stage of\u00a0the\u00a0food chain\u00a0in\u00a02023\u00a0[2]<\/h6>\n
Household food waste burdens not only household budgets but also the\u00a0environment. The\u00a0impacts are significant:<\/p>\n
- \n
- Environmental<\/strong> \u2013 natural resources (water, energy, land, and human\u00a0labour) are consumed unnecessarily. It is estimated that the\u00a0global carbon footprint of\u00a0food waste accounts for approximately 8\u201310\u00a0% of\u00a0worldwide greenhouse gas emissions\u00a0[3]. In\u00a0addition, food waste disposed of\u00a0in\u00a0landfills generates methane, a\u00a0gas with a\u00a0significantly higher global warming potential than\u00a0carbon dioxide.<\/li>\n
- Economic<\/strong> \u2013 for households, discarded food represents a\u00a0direct financial loss. At the\u00a0macroeconomic level, it constitutes a\u00a0loss of\u00a0value across the\u00a0entire supply chain\u00a0and increased costs for municipalities related to waste management.<\/li>\n
- Socio-ethical<\/strong> \u2013 in\u00a0a\u00a0global context, where hundreds of\u00a0millions of\u00a0people suffer from undernutrition and food insecurity, massive waste represents a\u00a0serious ethical paradox: while some of\u00a0the\u00a0population experiences food insecurity, a\u00a0substantial amount of\u00a0food prepared for consumption goes unused.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
For the\u00a0sustainable and circular-economy-compliant management of\u00a0already generated food waste, as well as the\u00a0practical implementation of\u00a0measures to prevent its generation, it is necessary to provide expert support to municipalities in\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic. Increasing responsibilities in\u00a0the\u00a0areas of\u00a0circular economy and waste management are being transferred to them, and for many, navigating this environment is becoming complex and, in\u00a0the\u00a0long term, unmanageable. The\u00a0provision of\u00a0methodological, data-driven and technical support to cities and municipalities in\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic is essential to achieving national and European\u00a0targets for reducing food waste and to enabling a\u00a0successful transition to a\u00a0more sustainable model of\u00a0resource management\u00a0[4].<\/p>\n
METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURE<\/h2>\n
The\u00a0methodological approach to addressing preventive measures for reducing food waste at the\u00a0municipal level was based on current strategic documents in\u00a0the\u00a0fields of\u00a0circular economy and waste management, on the\u00a0results of\u00a0previous research projects conducted by the\u00a0authors\u2019 team, and on a\u00a0review of\u00a0relevant outputs from research projects carried out by other organisations, as well as practical experience.<\/p>\n
Strategic documents<\/h3>\n
At the\u00a0international level, the\u00a0key document is the\u00a0UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, specifically Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)\u00a012.3, which aims to halve per capita global food waste by 2030. To support its implementation, the\u00a0Champions 12.3 initiative was established, bringing together governments, businesses, and non-profit organisations.<\/p>\n
At the\u00a0European\u00a0level, the\u00a0issue has become a\u00a0priority within\u00a0the\u00a0Circular Economy Action Plan. The\u00a0key legislative framework is provided by the\u00a0revised Directive (EU) 2018\/851 of\u00a0the\u00a0European\u00a0Parliament and of\u00a0the\u00a0Council\u00a0[5], which amends the\u00a0Waste Framework Directive (2008\/98\/EC). This amendment requires Member States to adopt specific food waste prevention programmes and sets a\u00a0target to reduce food waste by 50\u00a0% by 2030, in\u00a0line with SDG\u00a012.3 of\u00a0the\u00a0UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. To ensure comparable data across the\u00a0EU, Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019\/1597\u00a0[6] was adopted, defining a\u00a0uniform methodology for measuring food waste. Scientific knowledge on food waste has been further advanced through projects such as FUSIONS and REFRESH, funded under the\u00a0Horizon 2020 programme\u00a0[7, 8]. Both projects delivered methodologies for measuring food waste, prevention scenarios, and policy recommendations. Current European\u00a0initiatives build on these findings, including support for food redistribution and waste taxation.<\/p>\n
The\u00a0Czech Republic has implemented the\u00a0European\u00a0requirements on food waste into its national legislation and strategic documents. A\u00a0key instrument is the\u00a0Czech Waste Management Plan\u00a0for 2025\u20132035, which in\u00a0Chapter 3.4 includes the\u00a0Food Waste Prevention Programme\u00a0[4]. This programme defines three specific national targets:<\/p>\n
\n- \n
- Prevent the\u00a0generation of\u00a0food waste and reduce its production in\u00a0primary production, food processing, distribution, and consumption.
\n
\n<\/li>\n - By the\u00a0end of\u00a02030, reduce food waste generated during processing and production by 10\u00a0% compared with the\u00a0amount produced in\u00a02020.
\n
\n<\/li>\n - By the\u00a0end of\u00a02030, reduce per capita food waste in\u00a0retail and other food distribution channels, in\u00a0restaurants and catering services, and in\u00a0households by 30\u00a0% compared with the\u00a0amount produced in\u00a02020.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
In\u00a0summary, the\u00a0legislative and strategic framework at the\u00a0EU level is now relatively robust. The\u00a0Czech Republic transposes these requirements into national policy and research activities; however, a\u00a0comprehensive and detailed strategy is still lacking \u2013 one that would more effectively integrate the\u00a0various actors across the\u00a0food supply chain\u00a0and provide municipalities with concrete, data-driven tools to achieve the\u00a0established targets. In\u00a0the\u00a0future, it will therefore be essential to strengthen inter-ministerial cooperation, expand targeted measures at the\u00a0level of\u00a0municipalities, schools, and food facilities, and establish a\u00a0reliable system for data sharing and monitoring.<\/p>\n
Research results and experience from practice<\/h3>\n
For the\u00a0development of\u00a0concrete and practically applicable proposals for preventive measures, key inputs were the\u00a0empirical findings, results, and knowledge obtained through research projects conducted by the\u00a0authors\u2019 team as well as by other organisations.<\/p>\n
Within\u00a0the\u00a0activities of\u00a0the\u00a0Centre for Environmental Research: Waste and Circular Economy and Environmental Safety (CEVOOH; SS02030008), the\u00a0TGM WRI team has long addressed the\u00a0issue of\u00a0food waste in\u00a0Section\u00a01.C on Biodegradable Waste. In\u00a0previous years, the\u00a0aim has been to develop a\u00a0national methodology to meet reporting obligations for food waste generation in\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic at the\u00a0national level for the\u00a0European\u00a0Union authorities\u00a0[9]. The\u00a0methodology covers all stages of\u00a0the\u00a0food supply chain\u00a0(primary production, processing and manufacturing, retail and other food distribution channels, restaurants and catering services, households) and is based on a\u00a0calculation approach strictly aligned with EU requirements and the\u00a0waste catalogue. The\u00a0methodology has become the\u00a0main\u00a0stimulus for an\u00a0interdisciplinary, independent approach to precise reporting and documentation of\u00a0waste generation in\u00a0the\u00a0primary production and food processing segments.<\/p>\n
The\u00a0main\u00a0indicator for the\u00a0municipal sector is the\u00a0generation of\u00a0household food waste, determined based on data from the\u00a0Waste Management Information System (ISOH). The\u00a0calculation includes waste from selected catalogue items (20 01 08, 20 01 25, 20 02 01, 20 03 01) with handling codes A00, AN60, and BN30. The\u00a0resulting value represents the\u00a0annual quantity of\u00a0food waste generated by households participating in\u00a0the\u00a0municipal system. The\u00a0purpose of\u00a0monitoring this indicator is to assess whether food waste generation is decreasing. Trend analysis enables municipalities to evaluate the\u00a0effectiveness of\u00a0measures related to collection optimisation, food redistribution, and public awareness campaigns.<\/p>\n
The\u00a0supplementary indicator I.KO expresses the\u00a0quantity of\u00a0avoidable food waste, i.e., waste that could have been consumed but was discarded. It uses data from ISOH and conversion factors established for individual components of\u00a0municipal waste \u2013 mixed municipal solid waste (MSW), biodegradable waste, and market waste. The\u00a0combination of\u00a0both indicators provides municipalities with a\u00a0comprehensive tool for planning, evaluating the\u00a0effectiveness of\u00a0measures, and monitoring progress in\u00a0food waste prevention.<\/p>\n
For a detailed understanding of the quantity and composition of the biodegradable fraction of mixed municipal waste, and for\u00a0the subsequent development of realistic proposals for measures, insights from MSW analyses are essential. These analyses were carried out in several projects: first, within the research project Waste and Prevention of Its Generation \u2013 Practical Procedures and Activities for Implementing the Obligations of the Regional Waste Management Plan of the Capital City of Prague (Growth Pole programme; CZ.07.1.02\/0.0\/0.0\/16_040\/0000379, Fig.\u00a02<\/em>), and currently within\u00a0the\u00a0ongoing project Effective and Sustainable Management of\u00a0Food Waste in\u00a0Municipalities (acronym NAPO, Environment for Life 2 programme, TA CR, No.\u00a0SS07010095, 2024\u20132026). The\u00a0main\u00a0aim of\u00a0the\u00a0second project is to establish a\u00a0previously unrealised systematic approach and to develop a\u00a0comprehensive tool for the\u00a0sustainable management of\u00a0food waste for municipal authorities and their associations in\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic. Dozens of\u00a0MSW analyses, with a\u00a0particular focus on food waste, have provided detailed information on the\u00a0composition of\u00a0these wastes and have identified the\u00a0fractions with the\u00a0greatest potential for waste prevention. Equally important is the\u00a0highly active involvement of\u00a0representatives from selected cooperating cities and municipalities, with whom proposals for preventive measures were consulted in\u00a0connection with the\u00a0ongoing results of\u00a0MSW analyses and the\u00a0operational experience of\u00a0officials responsible for waste management. The\u00a0preliminary results of\u00a0these MSW analyses clearly confirm that there is a\u00a0sufficient quantity of\u00a0food waste in\u00a0municipal waste with potential for utilisation and waste prevention (Fig.\u00a03<\/em>); the\u00a0complete results of\u00a0the\u00a0MSW analyses will be published in\u00a02026.<\/p>\n
![\"\"](\"data:image\/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB3aWR0aD0iMSIgaGVpZ2h0PSIxIiB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciPjwvc3ZnPg==\")
<\/a>\nFig.\u00a02. One of\u00a0the\u00a0key activities in\u00a0identifying food waste and obtaining the\u00a0necessary data is the\u00a0analysis of\u00a0MSW in\u00a0municipalities (photo: authors\u2019 archive)<\/h6>\n
<\/a>\nFig.\u00a03. After being sorted from the\u00a0MSW, food waste is photo-documented and provided with a\u00a0description of\u00a0its condition, expired warranty period, etc. (photo:\u00a0authors\u2019 archive)<\/h6>\n
In\u00a0research and awareness-raising, the\u00a0initiative Save Food<\/em> (Zachra\u0148 j\u00eddlo<\/em>) plays an\u00a0important role, highlighting the\u00a0extent of\u00a0food waste through campaigns and collaboration with retailers, schools, and producers, while providing concrete recommendations on how to prevent it\u00a0[10]. In\u00a02022, an\u00a0extensive study by the\u00a0Food Bank Prague and Mendel University in\u00a0Brno quantified the\u00a0scale of\u00a0food surpluses in\u00a0retail and proposed improvements to the\u00a0food donation system\u00a0[11]. In\u00a0collaboration with the\u00a0Faculty of\u00a0Education at Charles University and the\u00a0Faculty of\u00a0Business and Economics at MENDELU, the\u00a0project Smart with Food<\/em> (Chyt\u0159e s\u00a0j\u00eddlem<\/em>) was launched, focusing on food waste and aiming to raise awareness and change the\u00a0behaviour of\u00a0children, schools, and households\u00a0[12]. Household shopping and cooking practices are further supported by the\u00a0platform Buy What You Eat<\/em> (Kup, co sn\u00ed\u0161<\/em>), which offers advice, tips, guides, recipes, and inspiration on how to use ingredients as efficiently as possible, minimising unnecessary losses\u00a0[13].<\/p>\n
Experience has also been gained through the\u00a0project and platform I\u00a0Sort Gastro<\/em> (T\u0159\u00edd\u00edm gastro<\/em>), which provides comprehensive services by the\u00a0company Energy Financial Group (EFG) focused on the\u00a0separation, collection, and energy recovery of\u00a0biodegradable kitchen (catering) waste\u00a0[14, 15]. In\u00a0the\u00a0management of\u00a0already generated food waste, the\u00a0results of\u00a0research activities related to composting and biogas plants were also utilised\u00a0[16\u201318].<\/p>\n
Other relevant sources that supported the\u00a0development of\u00a0preventive measures include expert materials from the\u00a0Ministry of\u00a0the\u00a0Environment of\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic, ISOH statistics, EKO-KOM outputs (MSW analyses), and reports from municipalities that conducted their own MSW analyses. These materials enable comparisons across different regions, municipality sizes, and types of\u00a0municipalities, help identify key determinants of\u00a0food waste, and allow the\u00a0design of\u00a0measures that are practically implementable under the\u00a0conditions of\u00a0various municipalities\u00a0[19\u201321].<\/p>\n
RESULTS<\/h2>\n
Systemic measures at the\u00a0national or municipal level targeting food waste must lead to a\u00a0reduction in\u00a0the\u00a0production of\u00a0mixed municipal waste. This reduction can\u00a0be achieved through two mutually complementary approaches:<\/p>\n
- \n
- through consistent and well-planned waste prevention (including not only food waste itself but also the\u00a0wastes that are sometimes inevitably generated during food production, such as plastic packaging in\u00a0which food is discarded),<\/li>\n
- through a\u00a0significant increase in\u00a0the\u00a0efficiency of\u00a0separation and subsequent utilisation of\u00a0food waste that has already arisen within\u00a0cities and municipalities.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Proposed measures can be applied individually within a municipality. However, it is more effective to integrate these solutions into a coherent system and exploit potential synergies (for example, combining awareness-raising with technical interventions, or infrastructure with incentive tools). The goal is to design the most comprehensive solutions possible, enabling the development of efficient, adaptable models that can function in diverse local conditions.<\/p>\n
When implementing the\u00a0proposed measures in\u00a0practice, it is necessary to comply with current legislation and also take into account regulations concerning other specific areas (particularly public health protection, hygiene standards, and technical norms). Technical solutions (such as bin\u00a0sizes, collection logistics, and composting or biogas capacities) should be dimensioned appropriately to local conditions.<\/p>\n
From the\u00a0perspective of\u00a0the\u00a0municipal waste producer (i.e., the\u00a0municipality) prevention is absolutely key, as it significantly reduces waste management costs (for both residual and separated waste). However, waste prevention measures cannot be strictly enforced, or only to a\u00a0very limited extent \u2013 for example, through differentiated waste fees, incentives for households producing low amounts of\u00a0waste, or participation in\u00a0awareness programmes. Voluntary motivation therefore plays a\u00a0crucial role in\u00a0preventing waste generation, and this can\u00a0be strongly influenced by properly targeted awareness-raising. The\u00a0second dimension involves creating an\u00a0environment that enables motivated citizens to live a\u00a0\u201czero-waste\u201d lifestyle, supporting urban\u00a0composting, establishing platforms for food redistribution, and similar initiatives.<\/p>\n
Proposals of\u00a0preventive measures<\/h3>\n
Biodegradable municipal waste and support for composting<\/h4>\n
Biodegradable municipal waste (BMW), a\u00a0substantial part of\u00a0which consists of\u00a0discarded food, accounts for approximately 40\u00a0% of\u00a0municipal waste. At the\u00a0same time, it is the\u00a0only type of\u00a0waste that citizens can\u00a0fully and legally utilise in\u00a0the\u00a0home environment, even in\u00a0large quantities (Fig.\u202f4<\/em>). Landfilling of\u00a0biowaste is also restricted by legislation, and waste producers are obliged to implement measures leading to separate collection and further utilisation of\u00a0BMW.<\/p>\n
<\/a>\nFig.\u00a04. Today, we can\u00a0see composters not only in\u00a0family houses, but they are also increasingly used by residents of\u00a0panel houses in\u00a0housing estates (photo:\u00a0authors\u2019\u00a0archive)<\/h6>\n
There are several methods for ensuring the\u00a0utilisation of\u00a0biodegradable waste, but they differ considerably in\u00a0terms of\u00a0efficiency, financial costs, and environmental burden. Given the\u00a0complexity of\u00a0the\u00a0issue, all methods have a\u00a0place within\u00a0waste management. However, it is advisable that their implementation and support follow a\u00a0hierarchy similar to that applied to waste management in\u00a0general: measures with the\u00a0lowest environmental (and often financial) costs should be prioritised, with other solutions considered only once the\u00a0more favourable options have been exhausted.<\/p>\n
Domestic and garden composting<\/h4>\n
According to the\u00a0experience of\u00a0municipalities, grant support for the\u00a0purchase of\u00a0garden composters for residents with gardens, users of\u00a0inner courtyards, and similar settings has proven effective. Grant schemes can\u00a0also be targeted at the\u00a0acquisition of\u00a0indoor vermicomposters intended for domestic composting of\u00a0kitchen waste. A\u00a0starter culture of\u00a0earthworms must be placed in\u00a0the\u00a0vermicomposter, preferably a\u00a0selectively bred, highly efficient species of\u00a0so-called Californian\u00a0earthworms (Eisenia andrei), which prefer higher temperatures, reproduce rapidly, and process kitchen waste very effectively. However, they require care comparable to that of\u00a0a\u00a0specific \u201cdomestic animal\u201d, namely the\u00a0provision of\u00a0sufficient food (biowaste), appropriate temperature, and adequate moisture. Users of\u00a0vermicomposters therefore need to be familiar with the\u00a0requirements of\u00a0the\u00a0earthworms and the\u00a0rules of\u00a0their care to ensure that the\u00a0composter functions properly and that the\u00a0earthworms do not die.<\/p>\n
Community composting<\/h4>\n
Community composting refers to the\u00a0shared composting of\u00a0organic waste by multiple households, typically neighbours (residents of\u00a0a\u00a0single apartment building or entrance, or users of\u00a0suitable shared spaces). Composting may take place in\u00a0closed or open composters, or on compost heaps (Fig.\u00a05<\/em>). A\u00a0composter located in\u00a0a\u00a0publicly accessible area must be enclosed and lockable, with keys held only by authorised users. The\u00a0composter should be sited so that it does not cause nuisance through potential odour or insects and is reasonably accessible to all users. It is essential that at least one administrator is designated within\u00a0the\u00a0user group; this person oversees cleanliness, ensures proper compost management, and organises the\u00a0use of\u00a0the\u00a0produced compost (or delegates necessary tasks to other users). Each group should establish internal operating rules (definition of\u00a0acceptable compostable waste, user responsibilities, responsibility for equipment, etc.). Composters should preferably be insulated (to allow year-round use), lockable, and multi-chambered, with one chamber used for collecting fresh waste and the\u00a0others for compost maturation.<\/p>\n
<\/a>\nFig.\u00a05. The\u00a0disadvantage of\u00a0community composting is the\u00a0lower possibility of\u00a0checking the\u00a0deposited waste from a\u00a0larger number of\u00a0citizens, when waste in\u00a0plastic bags or even waste that is not related to composting at all may appear at the\u00a0collection point (photo: authors\u2019 archive)<\/h6>\n
Composting and the\u00a0treatment of\u00a0biowaste in\u00a0schools<\/h4>\n
Schools and other institutions may compost biowaste provided that several rules are observed. Composting should involve plant residues only, not food leftovers. The\u00a0composting process must not pose a\u00a0risk to the\u00a0environment or to human\u00a0health; it therefore has to be carried out properly, with no leakage of\u00a0leachate into watercourses or similar pathways. The\u00a0resulting compost is ideally used on school grounds.<\/p>\n
To ensure high-quality composting, biowaste must be consistently sorted at the\u00a0point of\u00a0generation; that is, during food preparation and in\u00a0classrooms. Collection should take place in\u00a0special ventilated bins placed in\u00a0each classroom (or at each waste collection point within\u00a0the\u00a0school). Ventilated bins, into which compostable bags are inserted, ensure that the\u00a0waste dries out rather than\u00a0rotting. The\u00a0bins must be closable to prevent pests, particularly fruit flies, from accessing the\u00a0biowaste. The\u00a0removal of\u00a0bags containing biowaste should take place at least once or twice a\u00a0week, or more frequently if necessary. The\u00a0compost must be turned (aerated) at least twice a\u00a0year, and it is necessary to ensure the\u00a0mixing of\u00a0residues with a\u00a0high nitrogen content (fruit, food preparation residues) with carbon-rich materials (grass, wood chips). The\u00a0resulting stabilised compost (after approximately one year) can\u00a0be used for the\u00a0maintenance of\u00a0school grounds. It is also advisable to involve pupils and students in\u00a0the\u00a0system (education, taking responsibility), for example by having them remove biowaste, check the\u00a0quality of\u00a0sorting, and care for the\u00a0compost. The\u00a0transformation of\u00a0organic residues into compost and fertiliser is also an\u00a0interesting topic for biology lessons.<\/p>\n
Community fridge<\/h4>\n
Public spaces where unwanted but still usable items can\u00a0be left and freely taken by others have two positive effects. They facilitate the\u00a0act of\u00a0\u201cnot throwing away things that I\u00a0no longer need\u201d and enable their donation beyond one\u2019s\u00a0own family or friends. They also make it possible to donate items that can\u00a0otherwise be given away (or accepted) only to a\u00a0limited extent, in\u00a0particular due to social conventions or feelings of\u00a0embarrassment (unsuitable gifts, food, etc.). At the\u00a0same time, items are not devalued (neither physically nor \u201cemotionally\u201d), for example by being left next to waste containers in\u00a0the\u00a0hope that someone might take them. Experience from the\u00a0operation of\u00a0similar \u201csharing points\u201d (community fridges, clothing exchanges, libraries) shows that they are used both by people in\u00a0genuine need (especially for clothing and food) and by people motivated by environmental concerns (consumption of\u00a0\u201calmost discarded\u201d food), as well as simply by people willing to try something different and sufficiently open-minded, particularly students (for example with food and books).<\/p>\n
In\u00a0practice, community fridges are the\u00a0most common form of\u00a0such sharing points; however, in\u00a0principle, any products can\u00a0be shared in\u00a0this way, provided that it is technically feasible, that sufficient supply and demand exist, and that people are willing to offer items free of\u00a0charge and to take them from an\u00a0\u201cunverified source\u201d.<\/p>\n
A\u00a0community fridge requires a\u00a0permanent electricity supply, daily monitoring (proper functioning of\u00a0the\u00a0refrigerator, inspection of\u00a0contents, and removal of\u00a0unsuitable or spoiled food), and placement in\u00a0a\u00a0location protected from weather conditions and direct sunlight. For these reasons, their maintenance is most often undertaken by operators of\u00a0caf\u00e9s or other facilities; some are located in\u00a0university dormitory premises, while others are installed at municipal offices. In\u00a0the\u00a0case of\u00a0a\u00a0community fridge, it is essential to ensure strict operational management and to provide clear, prominent notices setting out the\u00a0operating rules and informing users that consumption of\u00a0stored food is at their own risk. These operating rules, which define what may be placed in\u00a0the\u00a0fridge and under what conditions, must be carefully formulated and publicly displayed. The\u00a0safest items are purchased foods with an\u00a0unexpired best-before date that remain\u00a0unopened, as well as undamaged fruit and vegetables. In\u00a0some community fridges, it is also possible to leave home-prepared food, as well as opened packages where this does not affect quality (eggs, pasta, shelf-stable foods), or shelf-stable foods with an\u00a0expired best-before date for which any decline in\u00a0quality is minimal (pasta, legumes). It is also advisable to designate an\u00a0uncooled space for storing foods that do not tolerate cold and, in\u00a0particular, humidity (such as potatoes), or that do not require refrigeration at all (shelf-stable foods).<\/p>\n
Discounted food apps<\/h4>\n
The\u00a0prevention of\u00a0food waste has shifted markedly towards digital solutions in\u00a0recent years, among which mobile applications connecting businesses with end consumers play a\u00a0key role. In\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic, the\u00a0most widely used platforms are Nesn\u011bzeno<\/em> (Uneaten<\/em>) and Too Good To Go<\/em>, which enable customers to purchase unsold meals or food at a\u00a0reduced price\u00a0[22, 23]. This approach not only saves money for households but also helps to reduce the\u00a0amount of\u00a0food discarded and supports local food service businesses. While Nesn\u011bzeno, owing to its longer presence on the\u00a0market, has built a\u00a0strong network with more than\u00a01,700 partner establishments, the\u00a0newer Too Good To Go<\/em> relies on international experience and technological innovations, including a\u00a0tool using artificial intelligence for stock planning. Both apps primarily target urban\u00a0and younger populations and employ the\u00a0element of\u00a0surprise, as customers often do not select a\u00a0specific meal in\u00a0advance but instead purchase a\u00a0so-called rescue package. In\u00a0the\u00a0context of\u00a0rising food prices, increasing pressure for sustainability, and the\u00a0high share of\u00a0households in\u00a0overall food waste generation, these applications represent an\u00a0important instrument for the\u00a0systemic reduction of\u00a0food losses.<\/p>\n
Using tap drinking water instead of\u00a0bottled water<\/h4>\n
Water as a\u00a0food item is often overlooked. The\u00a0public water supply provides high-quality water that is regularly monitored by the\u00a0supplier for hygienic standards, is ideally stored (in\u00a0cool, dark conditions), and, with continuous turnover, remains fresh. Compared with bottled water, it is very inexpensive; one litre of\u00a0drinking water (water supply and sewerage charges) costs only a\u00a0few halers, whereas a\u00a0litre of\u00a0bottled water costs several Czech crowns. Bottled water is also a\u00a0source of\u00a0large amounts of\u00a0plastic waste, a\u00a0substantial proportion of\u00a0which is transported abroad for further processing. It is therefore necessary to focus on prevention rather than\u00a0solely on recycling, which in\u00a0itself represents a\u00a0significant environmental burden (production, transport, and the\u00a0recycling process itself).<\/p>\n
In\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic, high-quality drinking water is taken for granted. Nevertheless, bottled water retailers have been so successful with their marketing campaigns that tap water is often perceived as inferior. This perception needs to be challenged through targeted activities and the\u00a0promotion of\u00a0tap water.<\/p>\n
One simple yet effective preventive measure to reduce waste from single-use packaging is the\u00a0provision of\u00a0tap water to customers in\u00a0restaurants and caf\u00e9s. Promoting the\u00a0consumption of\u00a0tap water helps to limit the\u00a0use of\u00a0bottled beverages and thus also reduces the\u00a0amount of\u00a0plastic and glass packaging that ends up as waste. Municipalities can\u00a0support this measure through awareness campaigns, labelling establishments that offer tap water, or providing technical support (for example, filtration systems).<\/p>\n
Food banks<\/h4>\n
Food banks in\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic are key actors in\u00a0the\u00a0fight against hunger and food waste\u00a0[24]. They represent an\u00a0important component of\u00a0the\u00a0system providing assistance to people in\u00a0need, while simultaneously actively combating food waste. Their primary mission is to collect safe food that would otherwise end up as waste and to distribute it to those who need it most. This system operates thanks to close cooperation with retail chains, food producers, farmers, volunteers, and an\u00a0extensive network of\u00a0recipient non-governmental organisations.<\/p>\n
Food banks obtain\u00a0food from a\u00a0variety of\u00a0sources. These include primarily surplus food from retailers (e.g. products approaching their minimum durability date or with damaged packaging), unsold products from manufacturers and growers, as well as donations from the\u00a0public collected through food drives, such as the\u00a0nationally well-known Food Collection.<\/p>\n
The\u00a0collected food is subsequently sorted, stored and distributed through partner charitable and humanitarian\u00a0organisations. These organisations then ensure that the\u00a0assistance reaches the\u00a0target groups directly. The\u00a0most common beneficiaries include families in\u00a0crisis and single parents, seniors on low incomes, people experiencing homelessness, individuals with disabilities or chronic illnesses, and similar groups.<\/p>\n
Improving the\u00a0efficiency of\u00a0sorting biodegradable waste<\/h3>\n
Municipalities in\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic have been obliged to enable the\u00a0separate collection of\u00a0biodegradable waste since 2015, initially only on a\u00a0seasonal basis. Since 2019, municipalities have been required to ensure facilities for the\u00a0separate collection of\u00a0biowaste throughout the\u00a0entire year. At least at a\u00a0general level, such a\u00a0system is therefore in\u00a0place in\u00a0the\u00a0Czech Republic. However, MSW analyses carried out by the\u00a0authors\u2019 team and other bodies indicate that the\u00a0efficiency of\u00a0these systems and their more substantial impact on reducing the\u00a0amount of\u00a0BMW in\u00a0MSW disposed of\u00a0in\u00a0landfills have so far remained relatively low (Fig.\u00a06<\/em>).<\/p>\n
<\/a>\nFig.\u00a06. The\u00a0ongoing results of\u00a0the\u00a0MSW analyses carried out as part of\u00a0the\u00a0NAPO research project show that the\u00a0share of\u00a0usable BMW is still around 40\u00a0%<\/h6>\n
Separate collection and the\u00a0introduction of\u00a0catering (food) waste collection for municipal residents and\u00a0businesses<\/h4>\n
Here, catering waste refers to waste classified under catalogue code 20 01 08\u00a0\u2013 Biodegradable waste from kitchens and canteens. Leftovers of\u00a0cooked meals and similar waste from catering facilities and households are usually not collected separately and largely end up in\u00a0mixed municipal waste. Catering waste can\u00a0only be composted to a\u00a0limited extent due to the\u00a0risk of\u00a0rodents, insects and potential infection (especially meat and cooked food residues). As the\u00a0level of\u00a0separate collection of\u00a0other waste fractions improves, the\u00a0share of\u00a0catering waste in\u00a0mixed municipal waste increases. This is a\u00a0waste fraction that can\u00a0be further utilised (e.g. in\u00a0biogas plants); however, is difficult to use directly for energy recovery (by incineration), and its disposal (as biodegradable municipal waste) in\u00a0landfills is increasingly restricted by legislation. These factors all underline the\u00a0need to divert this waste stream and to introduce consistent separate collection and recovery. As with other waste fractions, separation at the\u00a0source is essential, because subsequent sorting is practically impossible and mixing significantly reduces the\u00a0potential for further utilisation. A\u00a0model example of\u00a0good practice is the\u00a0already mentioned T\u0159\u00edd\u00edm gastro initiative\u00a0[14].<\/p>\n
Collection of\u00a0edible oils at the\u00a0point of\u00a0use (canteens,\u00a0restaurants)<\/h4>\n
Used edible oil from households and catering establishments still ends up in\u00a0significant quantities in\u00a0the\u00a0sewer system or in\u00a0mixed municipal waste. Such practices can\u00a0cause pipe blockages, damage to sewerage infrastructure and increased maintenance costs.<\/p>\n
Edible oils and fats, however, represent a\u00a0recoverable raw material that is collected and sorted under catalogue code 20 01 25\u00a0\u2013 Edible oil and fat. A\u00a0number of\u00a0companies are involved in\u00a0the\u00a0collection and reuse of\u00a0this oil; the\u00a0technology is well established and there is demand for the\u00a0material, which is even purchased (typically for a\u00a0few Czech crowns per litre). Selected locations can\u00a0also serve as collection points for oil from households (most commonly schools or school canteens). The\u00a0level of\u00a0separate collection of\u00a0this material (i.e. the\u00a0proportion of\u00a0oils ending up in\u00a0the\u00a0sewer system) is closely linked to public awareness of\u00a0the\u00a0potential damage caused by oil in\u00a0pipes (blockages, the\u00a0need for repairs).<\/p>\n
Information and awareness campaigns<\/h3>\n
In\u00a0the\u00a0area of\u00a0preventing the\u00a0generation of\u00a0BMW and food waste, the\u00a0public is a\u00a0crucial target group, capable of\u00a0effectively influencing the\u00a0quantity and type of\u00a0waste produced in\u00a0everyday life. An\u00a0effective information campaign can\u00a0therefore quickly create (and thus have an\u00a0immediate impact) and, throughout the\u00a0implementation of\u00a0preventive measures, ensure the\u00a0continuous operation of\u00a0an\u00a0openly accessible information base on waste prevention at various levels. It thus acts both immediately (short-term) and over the\u00a0long term. The\u00a0strategy for disseminating information in\u00a0this area is considered one of\u00a0the\u00a0most important forms of\u00a0intervention.<\/p>\n
Awareness-raising is absolutely crucial to support the\u00a0public in\u00a0activities aimed at reducing waste generation. This is because such solutions are often less convenient for users (for example, the\u00a0need to bring your own containers, cups, etc.), whereas waste seemingly \u201cdisappears\u201d once discarded. It is therefore necessary to strengthen understanding of\u00a0the\u00a0connections involved (the\u00a0link between a\u00a0discarded cup and a\u00a0landfill or incinerator, which are perceived negatively) while simultaneously promoting and disseminating proper, practical approaches for living with minimal waste. This applies across many levels \u2013 from individual citizens to small businesses, large companies, and public administration or institutions. Simultaneously, it should be noted that the\u00a0actual effectiveness of\u00a0information campaigns can\u00a0vary widely. As confirmed by analyses of\u00a0MSW in\u00a0municipalities with intensive public awareness initiatives \u2013 encouraging residents to collect and separate BMW and food (catering) waste, including the\u00a0provision of\u00a0a\u00a0sufficient number of\u00a0street collection containers and bins for households \u2013 municipalities often struggle to achieve significant reductions in\u00a0waste generation. This is largely due to residents\u2019 non-compliance and failure to follow the\u00a0rules, meaning that even substantial financial investments do not always result in\u00a0meaningful decreases in\u00a0the\u00a0amounts of\u00a0these wastes (see Fig.\u00a07<\/em>).<\/p>\n
<\/a>\nFig.\u00a07. Citizen indiscipline and failure to respect basic rules for MSW collection and sorting remain\u00a0evident in\u00a0some municipalities, even after years of\u00a0information and awareness campaigns (photo: authors\u2019 archive)<\/h6>\n
Information and awareness campaigns can\u00a0encompass a\u00a0wide range of\u00a0activities targeting residents, while also linking them to community events, schools, or local businesses. Municipalities can\u00a0use various channels to disseminate and promote these campaigns, such as the\u00a0municipality\u2019s\u00a0website, leaflets, local newspapers, labels on collection containers, mobile applications, official social media pages, and similar platforms. The\u00a0range of\u00a0possibilities is quite extensive and may focus on activities such as:<\/p>\n
- \n
- regularly inform the\u00a0public about current developments in\u00a0the\u00a0field of\u00a0the\u00a0circular economy and waste management within\u00a0the\u00a0municipality;<\/li>\n
- inform about the\u00a0types of\u00a0waste collection containers, their colour coding, the\u00a0placement of\u00a0labels and internationally recognisable pictograms indicating accepted and non-accepted waste on the\u00a0containers, and the\u00a0use of\u00a0QR codes enabling the\u00a0reporting of\u00a0issues related to collection points;<\/li>\n
- organise guided visits to facilities that form part of\u00a0the\u00a0waste management system (landfills, sorting lines, recycling centres, composting plants, biogas plants, energy recovery facilities, manufacturers using returnable packaging, etc.); the\u00a0purpose of\u00a0these visits is to demonstrate real-life operations and to dispel myths and misconceptions about waste management, such as the\u00a0claim that \u201cseparating waste makes no sense because it is all later dumped into a\u00a0single refuse truck or landfill pit anyway\u201d;<\/li>\n
- participate in\u00a0science and research projects and inform the\u00a0public about these activities;<\/li>\n
- disseminate information on initiatives, events, and organisations whose activities aim to reduce food waste (such as Nepl\u00fdtvej potravinami<\/em>, Zachra\u0148 j\u00eddlo<\/em>, Kup, co sn\u00ed\u0161<\/em>, food banks, and similar initiatives)<\/li>\n
- organise, or co-organise, courses promoting properly planned food purchasing and cooking from primary ingredients (unpackaged foods);<\/li>\n
- disseminate information about social and communication platforms and applications for electronic devices;<\/li>\n
- promote zero-waste shopping and related initiatives, provide information on local retailers, and explain\u00a0the\u00a0hygiene requirements that must be met (appropriate containers and subsequent storage of\u00a0products at home to prevent deterioration);<\/li>\n
- provide information on available financial support (grant programmes) aimed at supporting production and sales practices that minimise the\u00a0generation of\u00a0food waste (sales into customer-owned containers, use of\u00a0returnable packaging in\u00a0production and retail);<\/li>\n
- disseminate information on examples of\u00a0good practice;<\/li>\n
- provide advisory support in\u00a0legislative, accounting, and hygiene matters (in\u00a0cooperation with public health authorities and retail operators) related to the\u00a0sorting and management of\u00a0food waste and the\u00a0use of\u00a0returnable\/customer-owned packaging; consider issuing the\u00a0manual in\u00a0other languages as well (at least as a\u00a0translation of\u00a0the\u00a0electronic version);<\/li>\n
- provide financial incentives for, and differentiate between, citizens and entities that take a\u00a0responsible approach to the\u00a0sorting of\u00a0food waste;<\/li>\n
- create interactive maps indicating collection containers suitable for depositing food waste, community fridges, and zero-waste shops (including, for example, outlets offering coffee into customers\u2019 own containers), incorporating data filtering options, information on opening hours, contact details, and similar features;<\/li>\n
- provide long-term support for municipal projects and recommend them to residents (home composters, community composting, pilot projects for collection and sorting, etc.);<\/li>\n
- through schools, educational institutions, and leisure-time centres, organise public competitions (currently popular among pupils and students, for example photo competitions) focused on identifying and rewarding original ideas and solutions in\u00a0the\u00a0field of\u00a0food waste prevention, proper food waste management, and the\u00a0use of\u00a0recycled materials (for example composts).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Revenues and expenditures in\u00a0municipal waste management<\/h3>\n
Within\u00a0municipal budgets, waste management is tracked through revenues, expenditures, and the\u00a0financial relationships between them. These are further specified using budget items, paragraphs, and similar classifications, monitored according to the\u00a0budgetary structure defined by Decree No. 412\/2021. Capturing financial relationships in\u00a0the\u00a0budget is closely linked to the\u00a0municipalities\u2019 waste management models. These financial relationships reflect different approaches, ranging from municipalities independently performing waste management activities through their offices, to purchasing services from collection companies, establishing municipal organisations, or cooperating within\u00a0associations of\u00a0municipalities. The\u00a0choice of\u00a0model depends primarily on the\u00a0size of\u00a0the\u00a0municipality, its organisational capacity, and economic stability. Over the\u00a0long term, a\u00a0significant increase in\u00a0the\u00a0burden of\u00a0waste management on municipal budgets can\u00a0be observed. While in\u00a02010 it amounted to CZK 2 billion, by 2024 it had risen to CZK 7 billion, representing an\u00a0increase of\u00a0241\u00a0%. The\u00a0overall net financial impacts of\u00a0waste management in\u00a0municipalities are mainly driven by the\u00a0growth in\u00a0municipal expenditures on waste management. From 2010 to 2024, total municipal spending on waste management increased from CZK 9.3\u00a0billion to CZK\u00a019.7\u00a0billion. This 111\u00a0% increase was influenced by inflation; however, even after adjusting for inflation, there remains a\u00a0real increase of\u00a029\u00a0% (Fig.\u00a08<\/em>).<\/p>\n
<\/a>\nFig.\u00a08. Development of\u00a0municipal waste management in\u00a02010\u20132024 (Ministry of\u00a0Finance, State Treasury Monitor)<\/h6>\n
Municipal expenditures on waste management mainly relate to costs for collection and transport, waste utilisation and disposal, prevention of\u00a0waste generation, and monitoring (Fig.\u00a09<\/em>). Municipalities pay these costs to waste collection companies, and they also include fees for landfill disposal. Most of\u00a0these expenses are operational, while capital expenditures cover items such as equipping collection yards, composting facilities, or acquiring collection vehicles. Expenditure levels vary according to the\u00a0size of\u00a0the\u00a0municipality; in\u00a02014\u20132015, smaller municipalities had higher capital expenses due to EU subsidies. Over the\u00a0long term, the\u00a0highest per capita costs are borne by the\u00a0smallest municipalities, and differences between size categories are widening. Higher unit costs in\u00a0small municipalities may be linked to lower collection efficiency, underutilisation of\u00a0capacities, and limited opportunities for optimisation. This highlights the\u00a0need for system rationalisation, increased prevention, and stronger support for waste separation.<\/p>\n
<\/a>\nFig. 9. Total municipal expenditures on waste management by size category in\u00a02010\u20132024 (Ministry of\u00a0Finance, Treasury Monitor \/ Czech Statistical Office)<\/h6>\n
The\u00a0main\u00a0source of\u00a0municipal revenue in\u00a0waste management is the\u00a0local fee for the\u00a0municipal waste management system and the\u00a0fee for municipal waste disposal, set by a\u00a0generally binding municipal ordinance. Some municipalities may also collect these fees through contractual arrangements. Other sources of\u00a0revenue include payments for sorted waste, contributions from collective systems, and income from landfill disposal fees collected by the\u00a0municipality where the\u00a0facility is located. Additionally, some municipalities may charge fees for waste that they transport in\u00a0bulk to landfills (e.g., construction debris), with the\u00a0fee based on the\u00a0costs of\u00a0disposal.<\/p>\n
- Economic<\/strong> \u2013 for households, discarded food represents a\u00a0direct financial loss. At the\u00a0macroeconomic level, it constitutes a\u00a0loss of\u00a0value across the\u00a0entire supply chain\u00a0and increased costs for municipalities related to waste management.<\/li>\n